<h2>Mongolian</h2>

<p>Mongolian constellations and cosmogony were inherited from the
occidental civilisation notably by the contact with Alexander the Great and was
largely influenced by Chinese civilisation and Buddhist religion,
resulting in numerous myths and beliefs linked with what surrounds
them. The local wild and fauna are the main themes of this
skyculture. The wealth of their cosmogony is probably to link with the
observation conditions for whom they benefit even now. In the past,
the necessity for them to move and to get one's bearing even during
the night and at different seasons, by searching the weather's
mildness, is probably one of the element which developed their
imaginary facing the sky. </p>

<h3> Constellations </h3>

<p> Generally, stars represent animals turning around the North Star which
is symbolized by the golden stick (<em>Altan Hadaas</em>). Almost
all Mongolian asterisms are similar to those that we know. However
some have other names like <em>Num Sum</em> (The Bow and the Arrow)
for the constellation Swan, or <em>Doloon Burkhan</em> for the seven
stars of the Big Dipper. The summer triangle made up of Vega, Deneb
and Altair stars refers to three stags (<em>Gurvan Maral Od</em> in
Mongolian). And Cassiopeia represents, in the Mongolian imagination,
the Five Stars Woman (<em>Hun Tavan Od</em>).</p>

<h3> Planets and Stars </h3>

<p> Originally, Tibeto-Mongolian astrology calculates the positions of
each of the planets visible with the naked eye. Because planets beyond
Saturn are not visible without telescope (the instrument which
appeared long time after the creation of their astrology), the
Mongolians have attributed one of the five planets for each day of the
week, completing with the Sun (<em>Nar</em>) for Sunday and the Moon
(<em>Sar</em>) for Monday. The names of the Solar System's planets and
Pluto have some peculiarities in Mongolian. Mercury is named
<em>Bud</em> (associated with Wednesday), Venus, <em>Sugar</em>
(associated with Friday), the Earth, <em>Delkhii</em>, Mars,
<em>Angarag</em> (associated with Tuesday), Jupiter,
<em>Barhasbadi</em> (associated with Thursday), Saturn,
<em>Sanchir</em> (associated with Saturday), Uranus,
<em>Tengeriin-van</em>, Neptune, <em>Dalai-van</em> and at last Pluto,
<em>Dalkhii-van</em>. We can see that the three last, invisible to the
naked eye and discovered long time after the others, have the
characteristic to have the particle <em>-van</em> at the end of the
name, indicating the princely status in Mongolian.  Earth and Pluto
are named similarly, except that this last one has this particle. It
is possible to translate from Mongolian Pluto like "The princely
ground" (ground and not Earth because it means here the surface on
which we walk, not the Earth. Uranus, <em>Tengeriin-van</em>, could be
translated as "princely sky", and Neptun, <em>Dalai-van</em>, as the
"princely ocean". Nevertheless, this particle has no real equivalent
in English, and translations above are presented to give an idea of
the planets name's meaning. However, the names of the celestial bodies
specified here come from Sanskrit (language spoken in India) and are
largely used in the current language in Mongolia but in an unofficial
way. </p>

<p> It is also very interesting to see the tight link between terms
designating other celestial bodies and their beliefs: indeed,
<em>Tengeriin Zadas</em> appoints the Milky Way. We could literally
translate this as the "Sky Line" (<em>Tengeriin</em> for the sky,
which also means the god of the sky, and <em>Zadas</em> for the
line). Well known in Mongolian star lore concerns Alcor, the star
located above Mizar in the Big Bear. It symbolises the recover and
protection star. It was placed here by <em>Tengeriin</em> (god of
heaven) to protect Mizar. To become an archer for Genghis Khan (13th
century), it seemed that one had to be able to discern these two stars
with the naked eye.</p>

<p> From a historic point of view, this excellent knowledge of the sky
goes back to <em>Ulug Beg</em> (AD1394-1449; <em>Taraghay</em> by
his real name), astronomer, mathematician and viceroy in Samarkand
whose empire spread as far as Central Asia. Turning away from his
royal obligations, he examined celestial bodies and astronomical
questions of his time. He is the first to extremely precisely measure
Saturn's revolution period (<em>Sanchir</em>) with a sextant of 40
meters radius. </p>

<h3> Myths and Legends </h3>

<h4>The Great Bear</h4>
<p> Mongolians are particularly attached to the Great Bear. This
constellation is limited for them to the seven Dipper stars making the bear's
tail and body, but the legend concerning it is probably the most famous in
Mongolia. </p>

<blockquote><p>Once upon a time, there were eight orphan brothers
gifted with outstanding capabilities living within a kingdom. The king
and the queen lived within it peacefully. One day, a monster came and
kidnapped the queen. The king asked the eight brothers to bring her
back and said: "If one of you succeeds to rescue my beloved, I will
give to him a golden arrow". The orphans went together to assist their
queen. They searched the monster during two days and three nights,
when in the middle of the third night, they found and killed the
monster. They brought back the queen in the castle. </p><p>The king
did not cut out the arrow in eight parts, he decided to threw it in
the sky. The first to catch it could keep it. The younger brother
succeeded the test and changed immediately into the North Star (Polar
Star). The seven others changed into the seven gods, the seven Buddhas
visiting their younger brother every night. The name <em>Doloon
burkhan</em> (the Seven Buddhas) come from this legend to appoint the
Great Bear and the Golden Stick, <em>Altan Hadaas</em>, the Polar
Star.</p></blockquote>

<p> A tradition, particularly delightful, concerns the link between
Mongolian people and the Great Bear as one star of this constellation is
attributed to each of them. It depends on their birth year in the Chinese
calendar. Chinese and Mongolian calendars have some similarities (the
Mongolian calendar is a lunar calendar). Each year is
symbolized by an animal, itself associated to a star of the
constellation Great Bear. The first, Dubhe, corresponds to the rat's year, the
second, Merak, corresponds to the ox and so on until the end of
the Great Bear's tail where Alkaid symbolizes the year of the horse. Then we
come back to the first, the sheep year and we repeat the same way
until the twelfth and latest year of the Chinese calendar, the one of the
pig. Therefore, the two stars at the end of the tail are assigned one
time only. </p>

<p>[Note by G. Zotti: This is a variant of the old Seven Buddha Sutra
described by <em>Elverskog</em>. There however, the association of the
stars goes in an up-and-down movement, i.e., Dubhe/Rat, Merak/Ox,
... Mizar/Snake, Alkaid/Horse, Mizar/Goat, ... Merak/Pig.]</p>

<img src="doloon_burkhan.png" width="550">

<h4>Shooting stars</h4>

<p> Shooting stars have also a specific meaning: they are personified
through their beliefs. When they see these shooting stars they imagine
that it is a star which falls from the sky and which symbolizes somebody
who just died. Whereas occidental people make a wish, Mongolians say:
"Phew, it is not me!"</p>

<h4>Neglected Legends </h4>

<p> Three legends just as rich in meaning concern the Sun, eclipses
and <em>Hun Tavan Od</em> (Cassiopeia). However, they are nowadays
neglected and almost forgotten by most Mongolians: </p>

<h5>Sun</h5>

<blockquote><p> At the origin of the world, there was only one man and
vast particularly dry meadows, burned by the seven suns which lit the
world. This man, a very good archer, made the promise to the gods that
he pierced all these suns without missing a target even once. If he
should fail, he would cut himself all the fingers one by one and leave
to live in a hole like a marmot (groundhog) to ward off the curse that
would weigh on him. He took his bow, pulled a first arrow and hit his
target. A second, a third until the sixth which destroyed the suns. He
finished by pulling his seventh arrow towards the last sun, when a
swallow flew off and passed through its direction. The bird was
hit. The man had not reach his goal, so he left towards exile in a
hole, cut his fingers and turned into a marmot. The swallow had just
saved our Sun, otherwise all life would have disappeared from the
world's surface.</p></blockquote>

<p> We have to see here a parallel with the number seven, important
in the Mongolian culture like all odd numbers. They bring luck in the
buddhist religion.</p>

<h5>Eclipses</h5>


<blockquote> <p>At that time lived a scary monster named <em>Raah</em>
which frightened the entire world. He devoured all who were in its
way. The god <em>Orchiwaani</em> owned a magic spring: whoever drank
from it became immortal. One day, <em>Raah</em> stole the spring and
drunk. The Moon and the Sun caught the monster in the act and reported
to <em>Orchiwaani</em>. Seething with rage to hear about this piece of
news he went to fight the monster. He cut its head many times but it
grew again immediately because <em>Raah</em> had become immortal. He
thought then to cut its tail in order to allow all that it ate to
leave again directly. Just as <em>Orchiwaani</em> would seize the
monster to finish it off, it escaped and disappeared between the Moon
and the Sun. Then <em>Orchiwaani</em> asked the Moon, who recaptured
<em>Raah</em> and cut its rump and its tail. In revenge, the monster
comes back sometimes to eat the Moon or the Sun which exit
immediately, giving rise to moon and solar eclipses.</p></blockquote>


<p>When there is an eclipse, Mongolians know that it means that
<em>Raah</em> devours the Moon or the Sun and they make a lot of noise
so that the monster liberates the eclipsed star. In the 13th century,
Guillaume de Rubruck wrote:</p> 

<blockquote><p>"Some [Mongolian people] have knowledge in astronomy
and predict them [to other Mongolian people] the Lunar and Solar
eclipses and, when it is about to produce one, everybody stocks up on
food because they do not pass the door of their habitation. And while
the eclipse happened, they play the drum and instruments and do big
noise and clamors. When the eclipse is finished, they devote
themselves to beverage and festivity and do big party."
</p></blockquote>

<p>(Source: <em>Les astres chez les Turcs et les Mongols</em> by Jean-Paul Roux
(French). <em>Revue de l'histoire des religions</em>, tome 195 n°2,
1979. pp; 153-192.) </p>

<p>Eclipse travelers in 2008 still witnessed drivers and cooks hiding
in their tents and making noise with the pots. It seemed authentic,
not a show for the tourists. Also note the similarity of <em>Raah</em>
with Indian <em>Rahu</em>.</p>

<h5>Cassiopeia (<em>Hun Tavan Od</em>)</h5>

<p>Cassiopeia (<em>Hun Tavan Od</em>) symbolises unity, brotherhood,
solidarity for the Mongolians. The constellation's five stars
represent unity of the five children of Genghis Khan's wife,
Oulin. <p>

<blockquote><p>Them did not get well along with each other and
squabbled all the time. Their mother decided to strongly tie five
ropes, and each one should try to untie a knot. If they succeeded, it
meant that they didn't remain united with other, and that the
brotherhood didn't gather in hard times. Conversely, if the knots
withstood the test, the five brothers would remain united and close
for the rest of their lives and would be victorious at the time of
wars.</p></blockquote>


<h4> Other Beliefs Linked to the Sky</h4>

<p>According to a Mongolian legend, a woman devoting herself to count
one hundred stars in the sky will dream about her future husband.<p>

<p> Sometimes, Mongolians honor the Great Bear (<em>Doloon Burkhan</em>)
by throwing milk in its direction. Milk, of white color, symbolizes 
purity in Mongolia. They pray so that something may be fulfilled, but for
several persons,  not for just one person, because this would bring bad
luck. Milk can be replaced by vodka which, even if it is colorless,
symbolizes the dark color and the strength for Mongolians. By doing this,
it avoids bad luck, quarrels, fear and fends off evil spirits.
</p>


<h3> Conclusion</h3>

<p> The constellations are inspired by occidental ones, but the
Mongolian cosmogony, briefly exposed here, highlights a notable
identity of beliefs which are associated with it. Mongolian culture
and knowledge transmission is essentially verbal, and so few written
traces exist about these subjects. It is therefore particularly hard
to relate their cosmogony with high fidelity and precision. In order
to preserve knowledge about this cosmogony, every observation,
suggestions or collaboration are welcome!</p>

<h3>Acknowledgements and Further Reading</h3>

<ul> 
<li>Bayrlalaa (thank you) to Mongolians, for their kindness and their help in the gathering of these informations about their culture and their cosmogony</li> 
<li><a href="http://uranoscope.free.fr" class='external text' title="http://uranoscope.free.fr" rel="nofollow">L'Uranoscope de France</a></li>	
<li><a href="http://www.afanet.fr" class='external text' title="http://www.afanet.fr" rel="nofollow">
	   L'Association Française d'Astronomie / The French Astronomy Association</a></li>	
<li><a href="http://www.outofnowhere.asia" class='external text' title="http://www.outofnowhere.asia" rel="nofollow">OutOfNowhere</a></li>
<li><a href="https://journals.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/index.php/jiabs/article/download/8974/2867">Johan Elverskog: The Mongolian Big Dipper Sutra. </a> Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies 29 Nr1 2006(2008), pp87-123.</li>
</ul>

<h3> Authors </h3>

<p> This skyculture is a contribution from two users of Stellarium,
<strong>Anthony Lagain</strong> (anthony.lagain(at)gmail.com) and
<strong>Batiste Rousseau</strong> (batiste.rousseau(at)gmail.com)
mainly based on oral tales of numerous Mongolians met during a two
months stay in Mongolia. To learn more about them: 
<a href="http://souslecieldemongolie.wordpress.com/" class='external text' 
title="http://souslecieldemongolie.wordpress.com/" rel="nofollow">www.souslecieldemongolie.wordpress.com</a> (in French). </p>
